GENERATION OF PROCESSORS

GENERATION OF PROCESSORS

First-Generation Processors (P1 – 086)

The first generation of processors represents the series of chips from Intel, that were found in the

first PCs. IBM, as the architect of the PC at the time, chose Intel processors and support chips to build the PC motherboard, setting a standard that would hold for many subsequent processor generations to come.

Intel 8086 (1978)

This chip was skipped over for the original PC, but was used in a few later computers that didn't amount to much. It was a true 16-bit processor and talked with its cards via a 16-wire data connection

Intel 8088 (1979)

This is the chip used in the first PC. It was 16-bit, but it talked to the cards via an 8-bit connection.

It ran at a whopping 4 MHz and could address only 1 MB of RAM.

Intel 80186

The 186 was a popular chip. Many versions have been developed in its history. Buyers could choose from CHMOS or HMOS (here H stands for high performance), 8-bit or 16-bit versions, depending on need. A CHMOS chip could run at twice the clock speed and at one-fourth the power of the HMOS chip. In 1990, Intel came out with the Enhanced 186 family. They shared a 1-micron core design and ran at about 25MHz at 3 volts.

Second-Generation Processors (P2 – 286)

The second generation of PC processors allowed for a great leap in system speed and processing

efficiency. With these chips we went from moving 8 bits of data around to moving 16 bits at a time. The following section details the second-generation PC processor, the 80286 abbreviated as 286.

Intel 80286 (1982)

A 16-bit processor capable of addressing up to 16 MB of RAM. This chip is able to work with virtual memory. The 286 were the first "real" processor. It introduced the concept of protected mode. This is the ability to multitask, having different programs run separately but at the same time. This ability was

not taken advantage of by DOS, but later Operating Systems, such as Windows, could play with this new feature. IBM in its Advanced Technology used this chip PC (AT). It ran at 6 MHz, but later editions of the chip ran as high as 20 MHz. These chips are considered paperweights today, but many still use them.

Third-Generation Processors (P3 – 386)

The third generation represents perhaps the most significant change in processors since the first

PC. The big deal was the migration from processors that handled 16-bit operations to 32-bit chips, the

80386 abbreviated as 386.

Intel 386 (1988)

This chip started it all. With this chip, PCs began to be more useful than boat anchors. The 386 were the first 32-bit processor for PCs. It could, as a result, crunch twice as much data on each clock cycle and it could play around with 32-bit cards. It can talk to as much as 4 GB of real memory and 64 TB of

virtual memory. This little bad boy could also team up with a math coprocessor, called the 80387. It could also use processor cache, all 16 bytes of it.

The reduced version of this chip is the 386SX. This is a low-fat chip, cheaper to make. It talked

with the cards via a 16-bit path. 386s range in speed from 12.5MHz to 33MHz. 386 chips were esigned to be user friendly. All chips in the family were pin-for-pin compatible and they were binary ompatible with the previous 186 chips, meaning that users didn't have to get newsoftware to use it. Also, the 386 offered power-friendly features such as low voltage requirements and System Management Mode (SMM), which could power down various components to save power.

Fourth-Generation Processors (P4 – 486)

With the fourth generation, more refinement than complete redesign was accomplished. Even so, Intel, AMD, and others managed to literally double processor performance with their fourth-generation

processors.

486 Processors (1991)

In the race for more speed, the Intel 80486 (abbreviated as 486) was another major leap forward.

It brought the brains of a 386 together with an internal math coprocessor--plus it was much faster. This

chip has been pushed to 120 MHz and is still in wide use today. The first member of the 486 families was the 486SX. It was very power efficient and performed well for the time. The efficient design led to new packaging innovations. The 486SX came in a 176 lead Thin Quad Flat Package (TQFP) and was about the thickness of a quarter .

Fifth-Generation Processors (P5 – 586)

On October 1992 Intel announced the Fifth generation of its compatible microprocessor line would be named the Pentium processor rather than the 586. The Pentium is fully compatible with previous Intel processors, but it differs from them in many ways. The Pentium features Twin data pipelines, which enabled it to execute two instructions at the same time and Intel called these as Superscalar technology. The Pentium is one of the first CISC chips to be considered superscalar. The Pentium is almost like having two 486 chips under the hood.

First-Generation Pentium Processor

The Pentium has been offered in three basic designs, each with several versions. The first-generation design, which is no longer available, came in 60MHz and 66MHz processor speeds. This design

used a 273-pin PGA form factor and ran on 5V power. In this design, the processor ran at the same speed as the motherboard-in other words, a 1x clock was used.

Second-Generation Pentium Processor

Intel announced the second-generation Pentium on March 1994. This new processor was introduced in 90MHz 100MHz versions, with a 75MHz version not far behind. Eventually, 120MHz, 133MHz, 150MHz, 166MHz, and 200MHz versions were also introduced. The second-generation Pentium

processors come in a 296-pin SPGA form factor that is physically incompatible with the first-generation versions. The only way to upgrade from the first generation to the second is to replace the motherboard. Many of the Pentium motherboards designed for file servers come with dual Socket 7

specification sockets, which fully support the multiprocessing capability of the new chips. Software

support for what usually is called symmetric multiprocessing (SMP) is being integrated into operating

systems such as Windows NT and OS/2. The second-generation Pentium processors use clock-multiplier circuitry to run the processor at speeds faster than the bus.

Intel also offered a single-chip OverDrive upgrade for second generation Pentiums. These Over Drive chips are fixed at a 3x multiplier; they replace the existing Socket 5 or 7 CPU, increase

Processor speed up to 200MHz, and add MMX capability.

Pentium MMX processors

A third generation of Pentium processors (codenamed P55C) was released in January 1997. The

Pentium MMX processors are available in clock rates of 66/166MHz, 66/200 MHz, and 66/233 MHz and in a mobile-only version, which is 66/266 MHz. The MMX processors include superscalar architectur multiprocessor support, on-chip local APIC controller, and power-management features. New features include a MMX unit, 16KB code, write-back cache, and 4.5 million transistors.

Sixth-Generation Processors (P6 – 686)

The P6 (686) processors represent a new generation with features not found in the previous generation units. The P6 processor family began when the Pentium Pro was released in November 1995. The main new feature in the fifth-generation Pentium processors was the superscalar architecture, in which two-instruction execution units could execute instructions simultaneously in parallel. Later fifth-generation chips also added MMX technology to the mix, as well. Beside many minor improvements, the real key features of all sixth-generation processors are Dynamic Execution and the Dual Independent Bus (DIB) architecture, plus a greatly improved superscalar design.

Pentium Pro Processors

Intel’s successor to the Pentium is called the Pentium Pro. The Pentium Pro was the first chip in

the P6 or sixth-generation processor family. It was introduced in November 1995 and became widely

available in 1996. The chip is a 387-pin unit that resides in Socket 8, so it is not pin compatible with earlier Pentiums. It is constructed in Dual cavity PGA package.

A Pentium Pro with 1MB cache has tow 512 KB cache die and a standard P6 processor die. The

main processor die includes a 16KB split L1 cache with a 8KB two-way set associative cache for primaryinstructions and a 8KB faraway set associate cache for data. The speed of the dedicated L2 cache bus on the Pentium Pro is equal to the full-core speed of the processor. This was accomplished by embedding the cache chips directly into the Pentium Pro package. The DIB processor bus architecture addresses processor-to-memory bus bandwidth limitations.

Pentium II Processors

Intel revealed the Pentium II in May 1997. It is essentially the same sixth-generation processor as the Pentium Pro, with MMX technology added (which included the L1 cache and 56 new MMX instructions). The Pentium II chip is characterized by its SEC cartridge design. The processor along with several L2 cache chips is mounted on a small circuit board (much like an oversized-memory SIMM), and the circuit board is then sealed in a metal and plastic cartridge. At 33MHz, the Pentium II processor delivers a 75%-150% performance boost, compared to the 233MHz Pentium processor with MMX technology, and approximately 50% more performance on multimedia benchmarks.

Celeron Processors The Celeron processor was originally a P6 with the same processor core as the Pentium Ii in the original two versions; later it came with the same core as the PIII; and more recently it uses the Pentium 4 core. Most of the features for the Celeron are the same as the Pentium II, III, or 4 because it uses the same internal processor cores. The main differences are in packaging, L2 cache amount, and CPU bus speed. The first version of the Celeron was available in a package called the single edge processor package and is basically the same slot 1 design as the SECC use in the Pentium II/III, with exception of the fancy plastic cartridge cover. This cover is deleted in the Celeron, making it cheaper to produce and sell.

Pentium III

The Pentium II processor first released in February 1999 and introduced several new features to

the P6 family. It is essentially the same core as a Pentium II with the additional SSE instructions and

integrated on-die L2 cache in the alter versions. SSE consists of 70 new streaming audio, video and speed recognition applications. The Pentium III also became available in speeds form 450MHz through 1.4 GHz, as well as server versions with larger or faster cache called Xeon. The Pentium III also incorporates advanced features such as a 32KB L1 cache and either half core speed 512KB L2 cache or full-core speed on-die 256KB or 512KB L2 with cacheability for up to 4GB of addressable memory space. The PIII also can be used in dual-processing systems with up to 64GB of physical memory.

Pentium II/III Xeon

The Pentium II and III processors are available in special high-end versions called Pentium II Xeon

and Pentium III Xeon processors (Intel now uses the term Xeon by itself to refer to Xeon processor based on the Pentium 4). Originally introduced in June 1998 in Pentium II versions, Later Pentium III versions were introduced in March 1999.

Seventh-Generation Processors (Intel Pentium 4)

The Pentium 4 was introduced in November 2004 and represents a new generation in processors.

If this one has a number instead of a name, it might be called the 786 because it represents a generation beyond the previous 686 class processors.

The main technical details for the Pentium 4 include: Speeds range from 1.3GHz to 3.2GHz and beyond.

• 42 million transistors, 0.18-micron process (Willamette).

• 55 million transistors, 0.13-micron process (Northwood).

• Software compatible with previous Intel 32-bit processors.

• Processor (front-side) bus at 400MHz, 533MHz, or 800MHz.

• Arithmetic logic units (ALUs) run at twice the processor core frequency.

• Hyper pipelined (20-stage) technology.

• Very deep out-of-order instruction execution.

• Enhanced branch prediction.

• 20KB L1 cache (12KB L1 execution trace cache plus 8KB L1 data cache.)

• 256KB or 512KB of on-die, full-core speed 128 bit L2 cache with eight-way associability.

• L2 cache can handle up to 4GB RAM and supports ECC.

• SSE2-144 new SSE2 instructions for graphics and sound processing.

• Enhanced floating point unit.

• Multiple low-power states

Eighth-Generation Processors

As of 2001, it had been about 15 years since PCs had begun to support 32-bit processors (all processors from the 80386 up through the Intel Pentium 4 and AMD Athlon XP). However, in 2001, Intel introduced the first 64-bit processor for servers the Itanium followed in 2002 by the improved Itanium 2. In 2003, AMD introduced the first 64-bit processor for x86-compatible desktop computers the

Athlon 64followed by its first 64-bit server processor, the Opteron. In 2004, Intel introduced a series of 64-bitenabled versions of its Pentium 4 desktop processor. Then in 2005, Intel introduced 64-bit

versions of its Xeon workstation and server processors and new 64-bit desktop processors the Pentium Extreme Edition and dual-core Pentium D.

Intel Itanium and Itanium 2

Introduced on May 29, 2001, the Itanium was the first processor in Intel's IA-64 (Intel Architecture

64-bit) product family, and it incorporated innovative performance-enhancing architecture techniques,

such as prediction and speculation. It and its newer sibling, the Itanium 2 (introduced in June 2002), are the highest-end processors from Intel and are designed mainly for the server market. If Intel was still using numbers to designate its processors, the Itanium family might be called the 886 because the Itanium and Itanium 2 are the eighth-generation processors in the Intel family, and they represent the most significant processor architecture advancement since the 386. The Core 2 brand refers to Intel's x86/x86-64 microprocessors(with the eighth-generation micro architecture, named Core architecture)

targeted at the consumer and business markets (except the servers) above Pentium Dual-Core. The Core 2 Duo branch covered dual-core CPUs for both desktop and notebook computers, Core 2 Quad - quad-

core CPUs for both desktop and notebook computers, and Core 2 Extreme - dual-core and quad-core CPUs for both desktop and notebook computers.

(The reason for introduction of multiple core processors is race for speed and heat management produced during processing.)

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ईथरनेट शब्दावली /Ethernet Terminology

ईथरनेट शब्दावली ईथरनेट नियमों के एक सरल सेट का अनुसरण करता है जो इसके मूल संचालन को नियंत्रित करता है। इन नियमों को बेहतर ढंग से समझने के लिए, ईथरनेट शब्दावली की मूल बातें समझना महत्वपूर्ण है। मध्यम (Medium) ईथरनेट डिवाइस एक सामान्य माध्यम से जुड़ते हैं जो एक रास्ता प्रदान करता है जिसके साथ इलेक्ट्रॉनिक सिग्नल यात्रा करेंगे। ऐतिहासिक रूप से, यह माध्यम समाक्षीय तांबा केबल रहा है, लेकिन आज यह अधिक सामान्यतः एक मुड़ जोड़ी या फाइबर ऑप्टिक केबलिंग है। खंड ( Segment ) हम ईथरनेट खंड के रूप में एकल साझा माध्यम का उल्लेख करते हैं। नोड डिवाइस जो उस सेगमेंट से जुड़ते हैं वे स्टेशन या नोड होते हैं। ढांचा नोड्स छोटे संदेशों में कहे जाते हैं, जिन्हें फ्रेम कहा जाता है, जो सूचनाओं के भिन्न आकार होते हैं। फ़्रेम ( Frame ) मानव भाषा में वाक्यों के अनुरूप हैं। अंग्रेजी में, हमारे वाक्य बनाने के नियम हैं: हम जानते हैं कि प्रत्येक वाक्य में एक विषय और एक विधेय होना चाहिए। ईथरनेट प्रोटोकॉल फ्रेम के निर्माण के लिए नियमों का एक सेट निर्दिष्ट करता है। फ़्रेम के लिए अधिकतम लंबाई, और फ़्रे

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