How Token Ring Works (For advanced readers only)*

How Token Ring Works

The most common local area network alternative to Ethernet is a network technology developed by IBM, called token ring. Where Ethernet relies on the random gaps between transmissions to regulate access to the medium, token ring implements a strict, orderly access method. A token-ring network arranges nodes in a logical ring, as shown below. The nodes forward frames in one direction around the ring, removing a frame when it has circled the ring once.

The ring initializes by creating a token, which is a special type of frame that gives a station

permission to transmit.

The token circles the ring like any frame until it encounters a station that wishes to transmit data.

This station then "captures" the token by replacing the token frame with a data-carrying frame, which encircles the network.

Once that data frame returns to the transmitting station, that station removes the data frame, creates a new token and forwards that token on to the next node in the ring.

Token-ring nodes do not look for a carrier signal or listen for collisions; the presence of the token frame provides assurance that the station can transmit a data frame without fear of another station interrupting. Because a station transmits only a single data frame before passing the token along, each station on the ring will get a turn to communicate in a deterministic and fair manner.Token-ring networks typically transmit data at either 4 or 16 Mbps.

Fiber-distributed data interface (FDDI) is another token-passing technology that operates over a pair of fiber optic rings, with each ring passing a token in opposite directions. FDDI networks offered transmission speeds of 100 Mbps, which initially made them quite popular for high-speed networking. With the advent of 100-Mbps Ethernet, which is cheaper and easier to administer, FDDI has waned in popularity.

Token ring local area network (LAN) technology was conceived in the late 1960s by Ol of Söderblom, then working for IBM [1]). US Patents were awarded in 1981 and Token-Ring was developed and promoted by IBM in the early 1980s and standardized as IEEE 802.5 by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers. Initially very successful, it went into steep decline after the introduction of 10BASE-T for Ethernet and the EIA/TIA 568 cabling standard in the early 1990s. A fierce marketing effort led by IBM sought to claim better performance and reliability over Ethernet for

critical applications due to its deterministic access method, but was no more successful than similar battles in the same era over their Micro Channel architecture. IBM no longer uses or promotes token ring.

Overview

Stations on a token ring LAN are logically organized in a ring topology with data being transmitted sequentially from one ring station to the next with a control token circulating around the ring controlling access. This token passing mechanism is shared by ARCNET, token bus, and FDDI, and has theoretical advantages over the stochastic CSMA/CD of Ethernet.

Physically, a token ring network is wired as a star, with 'hubs' and arms out to each station and the loop going out-and-back through each.

Cabling is generally IBM "Type-1" shielded twisted pair, with unique hermaphroditic connectors. The connectors had the disadvantage of being quite bulky, requiring at least 3 x 3 cm panel space, and being composed of many complex plastic pieces; quite fragile.

Initially (in 1985) token ring ran at 4 Mbit/s, but in 1989 IBM introduced the first 16 Mbit/s

token ring products and the 802.5 standard was extended to support this. In 1981, Apollo Computer

introduced their proprietary 12 Mbit/s Apollo token ring (ATR) and Proteon introduced their 10

Mbit/s ProNet-10 token ring network in 1984. However, IBM token ring was not compatible with ATR

or ProNet-10.

More technically, token ring is a local area network protocol which resides at the data link

layer (DLL) of the OSI model. It uses a special three-byte frame called a token that travels around the

ring. Token ring frames travel completely around the loop.

Each station passes or repeats the special token frame around the ring to its nearest

downstream neighbour. This token-passing process is used to arbitrate access to the shared ring

media. Stations that have data frames to transmit must first acquire the token before they can

transmit them. Token ring LANs normally use differential Manchester encoding of bits on the LAN

media.

IBM popularized the use of token ring LANs in the mid 1980s when it released its IBM token ring architecture based on active multi-station access units (MSAUs or MAUs) and the IBM Structured Cabling System. The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) later standardized a token ring LAN system as IEEE 802.5.[2]

Token ring LAN speeds of 4 Mbit/s and 16 Mbit/s have been standardized by the IEEE 802.5 working group.

Token ring networks had significantly superior performance and reliability compared to early shared-media implementations of Ethernet (IEEE 802.3), and were widely adopted as a higher-performance alternative to shared-media Ethernet.

However, with the development of switched Ethernet, token ring architectures lagged badly behind Ethernet in both performance and reliability. The higher sales of Ethernet allowed economies of scale which drove down prices further, and added a compelling price advantage to its other advantages over token ring. Currently, more businesses use Ethernet networks than token ring networks.

Token ring networks have since declined in usage and the standards activity has since come to a standstill as switched Ethernet has dominated the LAN/layer 2 networking market.

Token frame

When no station is transmitting a data frame, a special token frame circles the loop. This special token frame is repeated from station to station until arriving at a station that needs to transmit data. When a station needs to transmit data, it converts the token frame into a data frame for transmission. Once the sending station receives its own data frame, it converts the frame back into a token. If a transmission error occurs and no token frame, or more than one, is present, a special station referred to as the Active Monitor detects the problem and removes and/or reinserts tokens as necessary .The special token frame consists of three bytes as follows (J and K are special non-data characters, referred to as code violations):

Token priority

Token ring specifies an optional medium access scheme allowing a station with a high-priority transmission to request priority access to the token. 8 priority levels, 0-7, are used. When the station wishing to transmit receives a token or data frame with a priority less than or equal to the station's requested priority, it sets the priority bits to its desired priority. The station does not immediately transmit; the token circulates around the medium until it returns to the station. Upon sending and receiving its own data frame, the station downgrades the token priority back to the original priority.

Token ring frame format

A data token ring frame is an expanded version of the token frame that is used by stations to transmit medium access control (MAC) management frames or data frames from upper layer protocols and applications.

Token Ring and IEEE 802.5 support two basic frame types: tokens and data/command frames.

Tokens are 3 bytes in length and consist of a start delimiter, an access control byte, and an end

delimiter. Data/command frames vary in size, depending on the size of the Information field. Data

frames carry information for upper-layer protocols, while command frames contain control

information and have no data for upper-layer protocols.

Data/Command Frame

SD AC FC DA SA PDU from LLC (IEEE 802.2) CRC ED FS

8 bits 8 bits 8 bits 48 bits 48 bits up to 18200x8 bits 32 bits 8 bits 8 bits

Token Frame

SD AC ED

8 bit 8 bit 8 bit

Abort Frame

SD ED

8 bit 8 bit

Starting Delimiter

Consists of a special bit pattern denoting the beginning of the frame. The bits from most significant to least significant are J,K,0,J,K,0,0,0. J and K are code violations. Since Manchester encoding is self clocking, and has a transition for every encoded bit 0 or 1, the J and K codings violate this, and will be detected by the hardware.

J K 0 J K 0 0 0

1 bit 1 bit 1 bit 1 bit 1 bit 1 bit 1 bit 1 bit

Access Control

This byte field consists of the following bits from most significant to least significant bit order: P,P,P,T,M,R,R,R. The P bits are priority bits, T is the token bit which when set specifies that this is a token frame, M is the monitor bit which is set by the Active Monitor (AM) station when it sees this frame, and R bits are reserved bits.

+ Bits 0–2 3 4 5-7

0 Priority Token Monitor Reservation

Frame Control

A one byte field that contains bits describing the data portion of the frame contents. Indicates whether the frame contains data or control information. In control frames, this byte

specifies the type of control information.

+ Bits 0–2 3

0 Frame type Control Bits

Frame type - 01 indicates LLC frame IEEE 802.2 (data) and ignore control bits 00 indicates MAC frame and control bits indicate the type of MAC control frame

Destination address

A six byte field used to specify the destination(s) physical address .

Source address

Contains physical address of sending station . It is six byte field that is either the local assigned address (LAA) or universally assigned address (UAA) of the sending station adapter.

Data

A variable length field of 0 or more bytes, the maximum allowable size depending on ring

speed containing MAC management data or upper layer information. Maximum length of 4500 bytes

Frame Check Sequence

A four byte field used to store the calculation of a CRC for frame integrity verification by the receiver.

Ending Delimiter

The counterpart to the starting delimiter, this field marks the end of the frame and consists of

the following bits from most significant to least significant: J,K,1,J,K,1,I,E. I is the intermediate frame

bit and E is the error bit.

J K 1 J K 1 1 E

1 bit 1 bit 1 bit 1 bit 1 bit 1 bit 1 bit 1 bit

Frame Status

A one byte field used as a primitive acknowledgement scheme on whether the frame was

recognized and copied by its intended receiver.

A C 0 0 A C 0 0

1 bit 1 bit 1 bit 1 bit 1 bit 1 bit 1 bit 1 bit

A = 1 , Address recognized C = 1 , Frame copied

Abort Frame

Used to abort transmission by the sending station

Active and standby monitors

Every station in a token ring network is either an active monitor (AM) or standby monitor (SM) station. However, there can be only one active monitor on a ring at a time. The active monitor is chosen through an election or monitor contention process.

The monitor contention process is initiated when

• A loss of signal on the ring is detected,

• An active monitor station is not detected by other stations on the ring, or

• When a particular timer on an end station expires such as the case when a station hasn't seen a token frame in the past 7 seconds.

When any of the above conditions take place and a station decides that a new monitor is needed, it will transmit a "claim token" frame, announcing that it wants to become the new monitor. If that token returns back to the sender, it is OK for it to become the monitor. If some other station tries to become the monitor at the same time then the station with the highest MAC address will win the election process. Every other station becomes a standby monitor. All stations must be capable of becoming an active monitor station if necessary.

The active monitor performs a number of ring administration functions. The first function is to operate as the master clock for the ring in order to provide synchronization of the signal for stations on the wire. Another function of the AM is to insert a 24-bit delay into the ring, to ensure that there is always sufficient buffering in the ring for the token to circulate. A third function for the AM is to ensure that exactly one token circulates whenever there is no frame being transmitted, and to detect a broken ring. Lastly, the AM is responsible for removing circulating frames from the ring

Token ring insertion process

Token ring stations must go through a 5-phase ring insertion process before being allowed to

participate in the ring network. If any of these phases fail, the token ring station will not insert into

the ring and the token ring driver may report an error.

• Phase 0 (Lobe Check) — A station first performs a lobe media check. A station is wrapped at the MSAU and is able to send 2000 test frames down its transmit pair which will loop back to its receive pair. The station checks to ensure it can receive these frames without error.

• Phase 1 (Physical Insertion) — A station then sends a 5 volt signal to the MSAU to open the relay.

• Phase 2 (Address Verification) — A station then transmits MAC frames with its own MAC address in the destination address field of a token ring frame. When the frame returns and if the address copied , the station must participate in the periodic (every 7 seconds) ring poll process. This is where stations identify themselves on the network as part of the MAC management functions.

• Phase 3 (Participation in ring poll) — A station learns the address of its Nearest Active Upstream Neighbour (NAUN) and makes its address known to its nearest downstream neighbour, leading to the creation of the ring map. Station waits until it receives an AMP or SMP frame with the ARI and FCI bits set to 0. When it does, the station flips both bits (ARI and FCI) to 1, if enough resources are available, and queues an SMP frame for transmission. If no such frames are received within 18 seconds, then the station reports a failure to open and de-inserts from the ring. If the station successfully participates in a ring poll, it proceeds into the final phase of insertion, request initialization.

• Phase 4 (Request Initialization) — Finally a station sends out a special request to a parameter server to obtain configuration information. This frame is sent to a special functional address, typically a token ring bridge, which may hold timer and ring number information with which to tell the new station about.

Alternative Network Technologies: Asynchronous transfer mode

A final network technology that bears mentioning is asynchronous transfer mode, or ATM. ATM networks blur the line between local and wide area networking, being able to attach many different devices with high reliability and at high speeds, even across the country. ATM networks are suitable for carrying not only data, but voice and video traffic as well, making them versatile and expandable. While ATM has not gained acceptance as rapidly as originally predicted, it is nonetheless a solid network technology for the future.

Ethernet’s popularity continues to grow. With almost 30 years of industry acceptance, the

standard is well known and well understood, which makes configuration and troubleshooting easier.

As other technologies advanced, Ethernet has evolved to keep pace, increasing in speed and

functionality.

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ईथरनेट शब्दावली /Ethernet Terminology

ईथरनेट शब्दावली ईथरनेट नियमों के एक सरल सेट का अनुसरण करता है जो इसके मूल संचालन को नियंत्रित करता है। इन नियमों को बेहतर ढंग से समझने के लिए, ईथरनेट शब्दावली की मूल बातें समझना महत्वपूर्ण है। मध्यम (Medium) ईथरनेट डिवाइस एक सामान्य माध्यम से जुड़ते हैं जो एक रास्ता प्रदान करता है जिसके साथ इलेक्ट्रॉनिक सिग्नल यात्रा करेंगे। ऐतिहासिक रूप से, यह माध्यम समाक्षीय तांबा केबल रहा है, लेकिन आज यह अधिक सामान्यतः एक मुड़ जोड़ी या फाइबर ऑप्टिक केबलिंग है। खंड ( Segment ) हम ईथरनेट खंड के रूप में एकल साझा माध्यम का उल्लेख करते हैं। नोड डिवाइस जो उस सेगमेंट से जुड़ते हैं वे स्टेशन या नोड होते हैं। ढांचा नोड्स छोटे संदेशों में कहे जाते हैं, जिन्हें फ्रेम कहा जाता है, जो सूचनाओं के भिन्न आकार होते हैं। फ़्रेम ( Frame ) मानव भाषा में वाक्यों के अनुरूप हैं। अंग्रेजी में, हमारे वाक्य बनाने के नियम हैं: हम जानते हैं कि प्रत्येक वाक्य में एक विषय और एक विधेय होना चाहिए। ईथरनेट प्रोटोकॉल फ्रेम के निर्माण के लिए नियमों का एक सेट निर्दिष्ट करता है। फ़्रेम के लिए अधिकतम लंबाई, और फ़्रे

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